The Russian rookie had Alonso behind him for some 40 laps at the Yas Marina circuit as the title-chasing Ferrari driver sought to recover from an early pit stop.
Petrov had stopped even earlier for hard compound tyres, taking advantage of an early safety car to pit and run a long second stint to the chequered flag.
With Sebastian Vettel leading the race, Alonso needed a fourth-place finish to clinch his third world title.
However, despite his best efforts - the Spaniard leaving the track on more than one occasion - he was unable to find a way past Petrov's Renault.
Petrov eventually took the chequered flag directly ahead of Alonso in sixth place and with Vettel taking victory, the Red Bull driver also took the title by four points.
Frustration
As Vettel, who came into the race 15 points behind Alonso, celebrated his title success, Alonso shook his fist at Petrov in frustration.
"This was a tough race, on a circuit where we know it is very difficult overtake. We have been quite fast all weekend, and I am proud of my team and the good job we did," said Petrov, who has yet to be confirmed by Renault for 2011.
"We pitted under the safety car, which was the right decision, and after that I just tried to push while looking after the tyres, because I knew that the plan was to go to the finish.
"I had a long battle with Fernando, but the car had good top speed today so I was able to control the situation: I just did my job.
"If he had tried a move, then I didn't want to crash with him, but it didn't come to that. I came here to fight, and race every other driver, and I think I showed today that I can fight," he added.
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